Pathophysiology of Coronary Diseases

Pathophysiology of Coronary Diseases Describe the pathophysiology of coronary artery disease (what is it / signs symptoms / treatments / outcomes desired. Coronary Artery disease (CAD) occurs when fatty plaques are built up in arteries and harden with age. This is known as Artherosclerosis which results in a decreased amount of blood being delivered to the heart and increased difficulty for the arteries to dilate (Lewis, 2014). The heart then shifts from an aerobic metabolism to anaerobic metabolism due to the resulting oxygen deprivation from the vessels not being able to keep up with the increased demand for oxygen (Lewis, 2014). Lactic acid then accumulates and leads to acidosis, decreased energy, decreased contraction strength and also decreased force (Lewis, 2014). This chain of events means that less blood leaves the heart which can then lead to myocardial infarction (MI) (Lewis, 2014). Gender Signs and Symptoms Male Crushing Squeezing Tightness in neck, chest, or shoulder blade CAD is highest among white, middle aged men! Female Jaw, neck, back, and shoulder pain Shortness of breath Vague chest pain Dizziness Palpations Cold sweats Nausea May be more difficult to identify! Treatment Options: Some examples of medications: Nitrates: Reduce the amount of oxygen that the heart uses. Lipid Lowering Drugs: Inhibit the synthesis of cholesterol in the liver which unexplainably increases hepatic LDL receptors. The liver is then able to remove more LDLs from the blood. Simvastatin (Zocor) Niacin (Niaspan) Gemfibrozil (Lopid) Beta Adrenergic Blockers: Reduce oxygen demands and workload by reducing heart rate and blood flow peripheral resistance (Lewis, 2014). Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Inhibitors Result in vasodilation and reduced blood volume. These drugs also reverse or prevent ventricular remodeling (Lewis, 2014). Anti-Platelet Drugs: Reduce platelet accumulation and decrease the risk for a blockage to develop in blood vessels. Surgical: Laser angioplasty Coronary artery bypass Shunt placement Expected Outcomes: Increase in cardiac output Reduction of blood pressure Improving quality of life Reduction of chest pain Describe the pathophysiology of hypertension. (What is it / signs symptoms / treatments / outcomes desired / lifestyle changes needed. Hypertension Primary Hypertension Elevated blood pressure (BP) without an identified etiology (Lewis, 2014). Contributing Factors (Lewis, 2014) Increase sympathetic nervous system activity Overproduction of sodium retaining hormones and substances that cause vasoconstriction Increased sodium intake Obesity Diabetes Tobacco use Excessive alcohol consumption Pathophysiology of Primary Hypertension: Increased cardiac output (CO) or Systemic vascular resistance (SVR) increases. This happens due to abnormalities of any of the mechanisms involved in the maintenance of normal BP (Lewis, 2014). The release of renin or angiotensin II causes the blood vessels to increase which consequentially increases blood volume. Signs and Symptoms of Primary Hypertension BP >140/90 on two separate occasions Nausea Headache, typically throbbing and occurring in the morning. Vision problems Treatment Includes lifestyle modifications including: Stress reduction Diet Exercise Limit alcohol intake Tobacco cessation Relaxation techniques Secondary Hypertension Elevated BP with a specific cause that can be corrected Pathophysiology of Secondary Hypertension: Increase in blood volume is due to a specific disease or illness. Signs and symptoms of Secondary Hypertension: Stroke Heart Failure MI Retinopathy Left Ventricular Hypertrophy Treatment Treating the underlying cause Both types of Hypertension can be treated with medications such as: Thiazide diuretics ACE inhibitors Beta adrenergic blockers Although these are some signs listed in our text there are really no definite signs or symptoms because a patient cannot tell if their blood pressure is consistently high just by the way they feel. The damages listed above happen because there are no signs a person can feel on their own to warn them of their hypertension (Lewis, 2014). Describe the pathophysiology of left sided heart failure / CHF (what is it / signs symptoms / treatments / outcomes desired / lifestyle changes needed. Left sided heart failure is due to the left ventricle ineffectively contracting. This causes a decrease in CO and pulmonary edema. These occur because the heart is not pumping effectively causing fluid to build up in the left atrium as well as the lungs (Lewis, 2014). Signs and Symptoms Crackles heard in the lungs Frothy pink sputum ↓ Attention span Ventricular gallop Difficulty breathing Muscle weakness Edema Fatigue Weight gain Irritability Treatment Options Lifestyle Modifications ↓ Sodium intake ↓ risk for fluid overload Ace Inhibitors ↓ vascular resistance Diuretics ↓ Preload Advise patient to eat foods high in potassium or consume a potassium supplement to replace fluids lost Digoxin ↑ Heart’s ability to contract Beta-Blockers Prevent cardiac remodeling (Lewis, 2014) Create an Education plan for a low sodium diet. (What specifically would you teach this patient about this diet)? Include foods high in sodium / foods to avoid. Please have a detailed plan that you can use to teach a patient. The plan should have at least 2 patient outcomes listed. You need to bring the plan to clinical so that you can use it with your patient. Educate patient that sodium intake is as follow: Healthy Adult No more than 2300 mg/day Cardiac Patient Less than 1500 mg/day Advise patients not to add salts or seasonings to foods because it can increase sodium intake. They can choose options such as non-sodium seasonings instead! (For Example: Mrs. Dash offers AMAZING no-salt seasonings) Also, advise patient that using herbs for seasoning like garlic, ginger or lemon are good alternatives Foods to Avoid: Frozen meals Limit milk intake to no more than 2 cups a day Cheeses Canned soups and vegetables Advise patient if buying canned vegetables he/she can rinse these prior to eating with water Processed meats Always read your food labels Watch out for medications that contain sodium! Outcomes: Patient 1: Patient will be able to name 3 alternatives to seasoning with salt by end of shift, Tuesday 12pm. Patient 2: Patient will be able to name 3 food choices low in sodium by end of shift, Tuesday 12pm. (Lewis, 2014) Create an education plan for low fat, heart healthy diet. (What specifically would you teach this patient about this diet?) Include information on bad fats versus good fats. Please have a detailed plan that you can use to teach a patient. The plan should have at least 2 patient outcomes listed. You need to bring the plan to clinical so that you can use it with your patient. Daily Fat Consumption 25-35% of daily calories Polyunsaturated should be the primary source Food Choices Adequate intake of foods with omega 3 fatty acids have proven to be good for the heart (American Heart Association) Eat fish at least two times a week (American Heart Association) â€Å"Omega-3 fatty acids decrease risk of arrhythmias, which can lead to sudden death. Omega-3 fatty acids also decrease triglyceride levels, slow growth rate of atherosclerotic plaque, and lower blood pressure† (American Heart Association). Eat more: Whole grains Fresh vegetables and fruit If you cannot afford fresh fruit try fruit canned in natural juices versus syrups Low fat cheeses and dairy Avoid processed foods, and those high in saturated fats Foods high in saturated fats include: Butter Bacon Cheese Outcomes: Patient 1: Patient will be able to verbalize ways to decrease fat consumption on a daily basis by end of shift, Tuesday 12pm. Patient 2: Patient will be able to verbalize the need for consumption of Omega 3 fatty acids by end of shift, Tuesday 12pm. Give examples of situations when you would need to increase oral intake of foods high in potassium. Patients with hypertension on a potassium wasting diuretic, â€Å"diarrhea, laxative abuse, vomiting, and ileostomy drainage† would need to increase oral intake of foods high in potassium or take a potassium supplement (Lewis, 2014, p. 297). Give examples of situations when you would need to decrease oral intake of foods high in potassium. (Note: this could be in regard to disease processes or medications) Prepare a list of foods high in potassium. Please bring the list to clinical that you could use to teach the patient. Patients taking â€Å"ACE Inhibitors, Potassium Sparing Diuretics or NSAIDS may need to decrease their intake of oral potassium† (Lewis, 2014, p. 296). Also, patients who have â€Å"renal disease, burn victims, Addison’s disease, Tumor Lysis Syndrome and those with Adrenal insufficiency† may also need to decrease their intake of oral potassium (Lewis, 2014, p. 296). Foods High In Potassium Fruits Vegetables Other Foods Apricot, avocado, banana, cantaloupe, dried fruits, grapefruit juice, honeydew, orange, orange juice, prunes and raisins Baked beans, butternut squash, refried beans, black beans, cooked broccoli, carrots, greens (except kale), canned mushrooms, white and sweet potatoes, cooked spinach, tomatoes or tomato products, and vegetable juices Bran or bran products, chocolate, granola, milk, nuts, seeds, peanut butter, salt substitutes, salt free broth and yogurt (Lewis, 2014, p. 1115) Using the following template, prepare the following medication which many of the patients on 7S take (Remember that these are cardiac patients when looking at the indications of the medication) Please do not copy and paste from medication resource, complete in your own words. Be sure to include your reference: (24) points) **Do not copy and paste from medication resource, complete in your own words. Be sure to include your reference. Drug Order: Generic Brand Name Drug Classification: Drug Action: (How drug works?) Normal dosage: Expected Effects/Outcomes: (What symptoms do you want to improve?) Adverse Effects/Contraindications: Nursing Responsibilities: On-going assessment data and lab values to be monitored Nurse will: Aspirin 81 mg Classification: Antiplatelet Action: Hinders production of prostaglandins which prevents blood clots. Decreases platelet clumping Normal dose: PO: Adults 50–325 mg Q24 hours Expected effect: Prevention of blood clots in high risk cardiac patients. Blood in stool Stomach Pain Constipation Gastric bleeding Nausea Hearing assessment Vitals monitoring Assess heart function Monitor hemoglobin Monitor Hematocrit Monitor platelet count Assess urine, vomit and stool for blood Clopidogrel (Plavix) Classification: Antiplatelet Action: Hinders production of prostaglandins which prevents blood clots. Decreases platelet clumping . Normal dose: PO: Adults 300 mg initially, then 75 mg once daily; aspirin 75–325 mg once daily should be given concurrently. Expected effect: Prevention of blood clots in high risk cardiac patients. Blood in stool Constipation Nausea Gastric bleeding Stomach pain Hearing assessment Vitals monitoring Assess heart function Monitor hemoglobin Monitor Hematocrit Monitor platelet count Assess urine, vomit and stool for blood Lisinopril (Zestril; Prinivil) Classification: ACE inhibitor Action: Stops angiotensin I from converting to angiotensin II. This reduces arterial resistance Normal dose: PO: Adults 10 mg once daily, can be increased up to 20–40 mg/day Expected effect: Decrease in blood pressure. Fatigue Headache Dry cough Angioedema Increase in serum potassium Increase in BUN Increase in Creatinine Obtain baseline BP Obtain baseline pulse rate and rhythm. Reassess frequently Monitor weight Monitor FEs Monitor WBC Monitor potassium Monitor Renal function Assess patient compliance throughout treatment Losartan (Cozaar) Classification: Angiotensin II receptor blocker Action: Blocks vasoconstriction effects of angiotensin II. Normal dose: 50 mg once daily initially. May be increase to 100mg per day in 1-2 doses Expected effect: Decrease in blood pressure. . Vomiting Nausea Increase in serum potassium Increase in BUN Increase in creatinine levels Monitor BP prior to admin. And throughout treatment Monitor weight Monitor FEs Monitor potassium Monitor renal function Assess patient compliance Medication should be taken with food. Metoprolol (Lopressor) Classification: Antihypertensive Action: Blocks stimulation of beta 1 adrenergic receptors. Normal dose: 25–100 mg/day as a single dose initially or 2 divided doses; may be increased every 7 days as needed up to 450 mg/day Expected effect: Decrease in blood pressure and increase in HR, BP, and contraction. Fatigue Dizziness Bradycardia Fluid retention Edema Hypotension Assess arrhythmia prior to and during treatment Continuous ECG monitoring Monitor vitals Assess apical pulse Assess BP Assess liver function Lovastatin (Mevacor; Altocor) Classification: Anti-lipid Action: Interferes with cholesterol synthesis by lowering lipid levels Normal dose: 20 mg once daily with evening meal. May be increased at 4-wk intervals to a maximum of 80 mg/day Expected effect: Decrease in cholesterol. Hepatitis Cirrhosis Myalgia Gas Constipation Cramps Nausea Pancreatitis Vomiting Assess cholesterol prior to treatment and Q4 weeks during Monitor liver function Monitor for deficiency in fat soluble vitamins: A, D, E and K Monitor for deficiency in folic acid Atorvastatin (Lipitor) Classification: Anti-lipid Action: Interferes with cholesterol synthesis by lowering lipid levels Normal dose: 10–20 mg once daily initially may be increased every 2–4 weeks up to 80 mg/day; Expected effect: Decrease in cholesterol. Hepatitis Cirrhosis Myalgia Gas Constipation Cramps Nausea Pancreatitis Vomiting Assess cholesterol prior to treatment and Q4 weeks during Monitor liver function Monitor for deficiency in fat soluble vitamins: A, D, E and K Monitor for deficiency in folic acid Amiodarone (Cordarone; Pacerone) Classification: Antiarrhythmic Action: Prolongs action potential Normal dose: PO: Adults 800–1600 mg/day in 1–2 doses for 1–3 weeks then 600–800 mg/day in 1–2 doses for 1 month then 400 mg/day maintenance dose. Expected effect: Decrease in arrhythmia Hypotension Bradycardia Worsening arrhythmias Anorexia Nausea Vision disturbances Assess arrhythmia before and during treatment ECG monitoring Monitor vitals Assess for toxicity Measure apical pulse Measure BP Monitor liver function Pt should not consume grapefruit juice while taking this medication Nitroglycerin (sublingual) Classification: Antianginals Action: Relaxes smooth muscle and promotes vasodilation Normal dose: SL: Adults 0.3–0.6 mg; may repeat every 5 min for 2 additional doses for acute attack. Expected effect: Reduction of blood returning to the heart. Hypotension Dizziness, Increased HR Headache Assess vital and monitor them throughout treatment Administer sublingually at first sign of heart attack Carvedilol (Coreg) Classification: Antihypertensive Action: Blocks stimulation of beta 1 adrenergic receptors Normal dose: Hypertension– 6.25 mg twice daily, may be ↑ q 7–14 days up to 25 mg twice daily or extended-release– 20 mg once daily, dose may be doubled every 7–14 days up to 80 mg once daily Expected effect: Decrease in blood pressure and increase in HR, BP, and contraction. Fatigue Bradycardia Dizziness Hypotension Fluid retention Edema Assess arrhythmia prior to and throughout treatment Continuous ECG monitoring Monitor vitals Assess apical pulse Assess BP Assess liver function Amlodipine (Norvasc) Classification: Antihypertensive Action: Prevents calcium from crossing myocardial cell membrane and vascular smooth muscle Normal dose: PO: Adults 5–10 mg once daily Expected effect: Decrease in blood pressure Orthostatic hypotension Headache Dizziness Edema Arrhythmias Assess vitals Monitor ECG throughout treatment Monitor vitals Monitor liver function Pt will need assistance w/ ambulation Monitor FEs Educate patient on need to decrease sodium and fluids to subsequently decrease edema Furosemide (Lasix) Classification: Loop Diuretic Action: Inhibits reabsorption of sodium and chloride in the ascending loop of Henle and distal renal tubule. This causes increased excretion of water, sodium, calcium, magnesium and chloride. Expected effects: Management of edema associated with heart failure and hepatic or renal disease, acute pulmonary edema, treatment of hypertension (Vallerand, 2013) FE imbalances Tinnitus Diarrhea Hyperglycemia Nausea Vomiting Liver dysfunction Paresthesia Orthostatic hypotension Assess CBC Assess liver function prior to administration Assess electrolytes prior to administration Monitor BP Monitor Pulse Monitor for hypovolemia Assess for diuresis Assess for polydipsia Assess mucous membranes Assess skin turgor Monitor for edema Monitor weight IOs All drugs referenced : (Vallerand, 2013) References: American Heart Association: Fish and Omega-3 Fatty Acids. (2014, May 14). Retrieved February 13, 2015, from http://www.heart.org/HEARTORG/GettingHealthy/NutritionCenter/HealthyDietGoals/Fish-and-Omega-3-Fatty-Acids_UCM_303248_Article.jsp Lewis, S. M., Dirksen, S. R. (2014). Medical-surgical nursing: assessment and management of clinical problems (Ninth ed.). St. Louis: Elsevier. Louie, D., Wedell, R. (2014). Optimizing heart health. American Nurse, 46(3), 13. Vallerand, A. H., Sanoski, C. A. (2013). Daviss drug guide for nurses (Fourteenth ed.). Phila-delphia: F.A. Davis Company.